Three examples of computer crime

Activity 12-1

Question#2:
Discuss at least three other examples of computer crimes.

Answer:
Other examples of computer crime are spoofing, social engineering, and internet gambling. Under spoofing are three different kinds, email, web, and IP spoofing. Email spoofing is forging an email to make it appear as if it came from somewhere or someone other than the actual source. However, web spoofing is forging a website to appear like another website and fool the user. Whereas, IP spoofing is forging server or source of data to appear like it originates somewhere else.

Social engineering is another example of computer crime according to A A Baldwin. In the realm of computers, the act of obtaining or attempting to obtain otherwise secure data by conning and individual into revealing secure information. Social engineering is successful because its victims innately want to trust other people and are naturally helpful. The victim of social engineering are tricked into releasing information that they do not realize will be used to attack a computer network.

The Internet provides easy, worldwide access for gaming venues and gamblers. Regulatory and/or criminal violations occur when Internet gambling is conducted from or to a location that prohibits or regulates gambling activities.

Reference: www.webprofessor.org/389/notes/computercrime.ppt

Definition of computer crime

Activity 12-1

Question#1:
From the cases summarized above, explain what constitute a computer crime.

Answer:
Computer crime is a type of computer abuse which a country usually institutes a law against it. It is also convenient to define computer crime as any criminal act, which involves one or more computers either as the object of the crime or as accessories in its commission. Thus, the Computer crime can then be subdivided into computer related crime (CRC) and computer assisted crime (CAC). Intent of the action is the major factor in defining computer crime.

An issue discussed from 6 perspectives

Activity 10-1

Question#1:
Discuss one of issues taken up in this module from the point of view of the preliminary and finalist theories discussed in Modules 3 and 4. Note that you must discuss the issue you choose from six perspectives (three preliminary theories and three finalist theories). To put it another way, you must come up with six perspectives on the issue.


Answer:
Issue: Internet Filters (i.e. typical setting is to avoid pornography, drugs, violence, etc.). In the following discussion the correctness in the application of internet filter is not considered but only the ethical issue of application and non-application of it.

Perspective from preliminary theories:
(1) Ethical Relativism. Supporter (e.g. John Dewey) of this theory will assert that internet filters should not be generally applied because the morality on subject such as pornography, among others, is dependent on cultural heritage, religious affiliations, social norms, and individual preferences.

(2) Ethical Absolutism. The Absolutist on the other hand would argue that internet filters should be welcomed to be implemented on all establishments in all countries. This is because subject such as mentioned above are morally bad and that it would negatively influence the viewer whatever social affiliations s/he belongs.

(3) Ethical Egoism and Ethical Altruism. The ethical egoist would probably argued that internet filter should not be implemented on the argument that the object of desire on something else is good and should not be suppressed. Ethical altruist, however, might argue that application of internet filter is moral because that decision should come from the process of thinking. Social and moral responsibilities are the keywords of an altruist as well as the sense of fairness.

Perspective from finalist theories:
(4) John Stuart Mill’s Utilitarianism. This theory holds that happiness is the yardstick of morality. Thus, application of internet filter would only suppress the search of other people to where they could find happiness.

(5) Immanuel Kant’s Categorical Imperatives. This theory, however, speaks about the concept of duty. That is, to have a moral worth, an action must be done out of duty. Thus, application of internet filter is action which has a moral worth accordingly.

(6) Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics. In the same token but more precisely, aka virtue ethics has the consistent view of decency, honesty, integrity, intellectual creation of others. In fact, the author of this theory argued that the life of reason is the happiest. That is, instinct should not really be considered. In view of this, internet filter is a major thing to consider applying.

An example of a social justice issue

Activity 9-1

Question#1:
Choose one of the social justice issues in computing discussed above and find out to what extent it is an issue in the Philippines. Then find out what is being done to address it in specific countries. For examples, in the case of the digital divide due to language differences, Soriano reports the adoption of ‘the Unicode Standard, “a character coding system designed to support the worldwide interchange, processing, and display of the written texts of the diverse languages of the modern world.” Developed, extended and promoted by a non-profit organization, the Unicode Consortium (www.unicode.org), the Unicode Standard makes international communication easier.’

Answer:
Social justice issue: Access to information by persons with disabilities (PWD).

Our current state of development for ICT has not yet responded to the demands of persons with disabilities for the following reasons:

1. Computers, both hardware and software, are not affordable.

2. Internet infrastructures, communication cables, telephone systems are not readily available in the rural areas.

3. Most PWDs are poor and have no income.

Moreover, ICT development programs in our country do not include at present disability issues. In fact, there is no policy adopted by the Philippine Government categorically addressing disability concerns in the promotion of ICT. Congress has failed to include the issues on disability as a matter of right when it enacted the intellectual property code. For that reason, it is very difficult to reproduce information materials in Braille, cassette tapes and other form of electronic format that will aid children with hearing and mental impairment in their learning process. If the copyright owner doesn’t give consent, under the intellectual property protection clause, it is impossible to have the materials reproduced in any electronic format.

Statistics shows that the number of children with disabilities enrolled in our present school system is only 2% of the estimated 2 million children with disabilities. This very low percentage rate is caused by social factors namely:

(a) Most of children with disabilities are poor and living in the rural areas.

(b) Our special education system is limited in the number of trained teachers, materials and facilities.

In Japan, more number of PWDs are using computer technology in terms of employment, education, rehabilitation compared to a country like the Philippines. This is because their government continues to promote an effort to remove the barrier in supplying information. It also promotes development of telecommunication equipment and systems that are specially designed to accommodate the aged and the physically handicapped. Such efforts are:

1. Design of websites suitable for visually and hearing impaired.

2. Distribute official gazettes through the Internet in a manner suitable for visually and hearing impaired.

3. Produce broadcasting software suitable for the physically handicapped and extend subsidies to the producers of programs with credit titles or commentary, as well as programs using manual sign language.

4. Design a computer system to be used by children with disabilities in school.

5. Conduct research and development for a system that will enable hospitalized children to receive an education through the Internet and other network.

6. Reinforce the Braille information network system in school for the visually impaired.


Reference: http://www.dosite.jp/e/pj/itstr-j.html

An example of a violation of privacy

SAQ 8-1

Question#2:
Think of an act, other than those already discussed in this module that would constitute a violation of privacy in computing. Explain.

Answer:
Some clinic are offering free medical checkup (e.g. free blood pressure clinic). To those who want to avail, registration will be done by capturing personal information of the patient to build up medical records to be transferred through their network.

Since they are offering the service free of charge, they believe that they have ownership of those medical records and do whatever they want with it, even for some malicious intent. This I believe is an act that constitutes a violation of privacy because the patients are not informed about the consequences before accepting the free medical checkup service.

An example of computer abuse

SAQ 7-1

Question#3:
Choose one example of computer abuse which you think is morally wrong. Explain why you consider it morally wrong using any of the ethical principles you have learned in the earlier modules.

Answer:
I believe Flamming is an example of computer abuse which is apparently morally wrong. As defined, flamming is the sending of abusive email or messages to other people or newsgroups. This has something to do also with freedom of expression that hold no barrier.

Most of the computer abuses can be attributed for economic reason and some for self-recognition. But flamming is the only computer abuse which cannot be attributed to something but for one's insanity. Yes, I believe those who flam are those who has psychological problem.

The core definition of ethics is care for the soul and pursuit of "good life" and the attributes of man as social and rational being. How in the world can somebody speaks so loudly against the person if s/he is not his/her own kind. It will just self-defeat human being by not recognizing individual differences and preferences. Yes, man has also instinct, so as animals.

Legislation governing computer use

SAQ 6-1

Question D:
As a computer user, do you approve of an ordering principle, in the form of legislation, being formulated and enforced to govern computer use? Why? Why not? Defend your answer.

Answer:
Not yet. Ordering principle of computer use in the form of legislation is good. However in the Philippine setting, I believe we should not focus yet our efforts on regulating computer use but to expand first our reach and to let computers available to rural areas and to marginalized groups (e.g. poor, children, women, physical handicapped) of our society. Our problems at hand may be different from that of first world countries. We have a wide gap in our digital divide considering that our official language is English, which has a bigger slice in web content. Should we resolve our first hurdle, thinking of regulating computer use would be fine. For the time being, subjects on computer ethics on most of the college courses, even in high school, is enough.

Two ethical issues

SAQ 6-1

Question C:
Cite two ethical issues in computing. Explain how they are ethical in nature.

Answer:
Ethical Issue 1: Privacy Issue. This issue is ethical in nature because everyone has the right to privacy from people who has unauthorized access to personal information (e.g. medical records, bank accounts). However, nobody has the right for anonymity to authorized professionals for extremely critical cases such as treat to national security.

Ethical Issue 2: Free Speech Issue. This issue is also ethical in nature because everyone has the right to voice out opinions or dissatisfactions to an established organization. However, we should not forget our social responsibility by challenging the peace and order situation (e.g. shouting Fire! Fire!, inside the crowded cinema as a false alarm). This might be an extreme example but this is also a classic example of a free speech issue.

Three precepts on computer use

SAQ 6-1

Question B:
Pick three of the precepts on computer use discussed above and briefly explain each precept in terms of the theory of ethics and ethical concepts (discussed in Module 1-4) that underspin it.

Answer:
Precept 1: Thou shalt not use or copy software for which you have not paid. The ethical principle that underspin this precept is the one in preliminary theories which is the Ethical Relativism. In Philippine setting, though we also adhere to the law on software piracy, it seems that this is not yet a serious case as that of the U.S. You could still buy personal computer bundled with at least office suite for the amount of just a tip to the salesman and not actually the price of the software. If the vendor will not allow that, no sale of hardware will happen. It is because of the level of awareness of the Filipino consumer is not that mature yet to understand that hardware is separate and distinct from the software. However for those of understand it well, they just take advantage of the situation for economic reason.

Precept 2: Thou shalt think about the social consequences of the program you write. The ethical principle that underspin this precept is also the one in preliminary theories which is the Ethical Altruism. In this principle, defining morally good actions are those that could bring about the greatest amount of happiness to the greatest number of people.

Precept 3: Thou shalt use a computer in ways that show consideration and respect. The ethical principle that underspin this precept, however, is the one in finalist theories which is the Virtue Ethics (aka Aristotle Nicomachean Ethics). It is the repeated performance of rational activities over time that the disposition that will render one virtuous in character is developed. Doing the said virtuous act has no regard for external good such as honor, wealth, and power but is concerned mainly with the best benefit that can be produced by the act.

Most predominant theory

SAQ 4-1

Question#2:
Which do you think seems to predominate in the world of computing as you know it?

Answer:
The finalist theory, which I think predominant, is the John Stuart Mill’s Utilitarianism (aka Greatest Happiness Principle). In this principle, happiness is the very yardstick of morality. I believe most of the people have this “happiness” end in mind. However, the means to attain happiness is not of a concern. I am not trying to become pessimistic but using the actual example in the Philippine setting, pirated software is still a big problem of the country. We just attributed it to economic reason. Contrary to what Virtue Ethics is trying to project where circumstances do not justify morality.

Most appealing finalist theory

SAQ 4-1

Question#1:
Which of the finalist theories appeals to you the most?

Answer:
From the three finalist theories, the most appealing to me is the Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics (aka Virtue Ethics). It seems to me that this theory is an attempt for the perfection of human character by doing what is generally good, consistently and consciously, to attain the highest level of happiness in the supreme-end, which has of greater value. This is regardless of the condition, unfortunate it may seem, the virtuous can act virtuously even with scant resources. In a nutshell, what is ethical, moral, right, and good is perfectly in harmony with the law and that by abiding with it true happiness can be attained.

Relevance of the study of law

SAQ 2-1

Question#1:
What relevance, if any, does the study of the concepts of law, in general, have in computing and your study of computer ethics?

Answer:
The study of the concept of law, in general, is very relevant in the study of computer ethics. In fact, law is a tangible guiding principle, which clearly defined what is right and what is wrong, written or unwritten, which underspin ethics in general. For instance, the law of the land as defined is a rule of conduct, just, obligatory, laid down by legitimate power for common observance and benefit. That is, law is created with the concept of social adherence and benefits in mind. Not just for individual benefit for which everyone would think first, as a matter of instinct. Ethics in general, however, is an attempt to adhere to the law to attain morality. In my opinion, the Law is the big brother of Ethics.

Two laws governing computer use

SAQ 2-1

Question#2:
List down two laws governing computer use and explain what types of non-jural law seem to underspin these two laws.

Answer:
I would rather step further and discuss the two cases with similar scenario but with different decisions as discussed in our text under Software and Copyright Law of the U.S. (p. 75). These are the cases of Whelan vs. Jaslow and the case of Computer Associates vs. Altai. In the first case (Whelan vs. Jaslow), the complainant won the case on the basis of the argument that the structure (sequence and organization) of a computer program is protectable by copyright. Whereas, in the second case (Computer Associates vs. Altai), the defendant won the case and the court even cited that the first case (Whelan vs. Jaslow) was based on a somewhat outdated appreciation of computer science. This case therefore went against the idea that program structure, sequence, and organization are copyrightable.

What is amazing on these cases is that the motive of the action plays a very important role regardless of the written law. And that is where the non-jural law starts to kick in. The non-jural law that seems to underspin these two conflicting applications of the law is the Commandment #8 in the computer ethics, which is as follows, Thou shalt not appropriate other people’s intellectual output.

Applied Ethics

SAQ 1-1

Question#2:
Pick one area of applied ethics (e.g. nursing ethics), study some of its concerns, and summarize what you find out.

Answer:
I choose the biomedical ethics because I believe this is the most controversial field of ethical study as it concern directly with human life. As defined by Paul M. Cox, biomedical ethics is the area of ethics concerned with those ethical issues surfaced by the practice of medicine and/or the pursuit of biomedical research. The thrust then, of biomedical ethics, is to advance reasoned analysis in this medical/research area in an effort to identify, clarify, and resolve the ethical problem areas. Thus, some of its concerns are the following:

1. The obligation of physicians and the rights of patients. In here, the doctor takes the role of a father (paternalism) and the patient as the child. The ethical questions revolving around paternalism are the following: Are physician ever morally justified in acting paternalistically to their patients? Are they ever morally justified in withholding information from patient, lying to them, or treating them without their consent?

2. Biomedical experimentation using human subjects. Is “human experimentation” ethically acceptable? In here, the research subjects are often the economically and socially disadvantaged. The three troubling groups used in research are the following: children (can they really give consent and does parental consent apply), prisoners (does their situation make it so that their consent cannot be sufficiently free and informed), and paid research subjects (does payment for research take advantage of the economically deprived).

3. Policies regarding the mentally retarded. The routinely paternalistic treatment of the mentally retarded has been increasingly challenged especially as it relates to involuntary sterilization. This is supported by the reason that involuntary sterilization is in the best interest of some mildly mentally retarded persons because it will maximize their freedom to enjoy heterosexual activity without procreating. Others argue that involuntary sterilization is morally wrong because it violates autonomy insofar as it robs individuals of reproductive freedom.

4. The refusal of lifesaving treatment. The question of this concern is, “Is it justifiable for some agent of the state, acting in the name of society, to compel a competent adult to accept lifesaving medical treatment?” An example of this is the Jehovah’s Witnesses who refuse to accept blood transfusions for religious reasons. Whether the patient refuses or accepts lifesaving treatment to prolong the dying process, “Does society have the alleged right to enforce its conventional morality upon its members in this area? Does society have the right to act (paternalistically) to protect an individual from the harmful exercise of his or her own volition?

5. Euthanasia. There are four types of euthanasia usually considered by biomedical ethicist: (1) active voluntary euthanasia, (2) passive voluntary euthanasia, (3) active involuntary euthanasia, and (4) passive involuntary euthanasia. Voluntary and involuntary euthanasia proceed with the informed consent and without the consent of the person involved respectively. Active euthanasia, however, is killing the patient by giving him or her a lethal dose of a drug and passive euthanasia is allowing the patient to die. There is almost a consensus view that maintains the moral legitimacy of withholding or withdrawing extraordinary means of life support in the case of terminally ill patients. However, there is no such consensus view yet on the morality of mercy killing which is also referred to as “active euthanasia”.

6. Abortion. The moral status of the fetus has been a pivotal issue in discussion of the ethical acceptability of abortion. The concept of moral status is commonly explicated in terms of rights. Therefore, when one places the moral status of the fetus within the framework of rights, what kind of rights does the fetus have? Does it have the same rights as more visible human beings, and thus full moral status. Or does it have no rights, and thus no (significant) moral status.

7. Genetic and Human Reproduction. A number of recently developed techniques are now being utilized to detect chromosomal abnormalities, some genetic diseases and certain serious anatomical abnormalities in the fetus in utero; amniocentesis being the most prominent. Of course this also makes possible the determination of sex, thus creating the possibility of abortion on the basis of sex selection. Since prenatal diagnosis is ordinarily undertaken with a look toward selective abortion, prenatal diagnosis confronts us with an ethical question. Is the practice of selective abortion, on the grounds of genetic defect, ever ethically acceptable? Furthermore, cloning is another issue, which is on even thinner ice in terms of ethical acceptability because of the connection between it, and infertility is extremely tenuous.

8. Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). This virus is considered a necessary condition for the development of AIDS (it is the retrovirus), a disease that is usually, perhaps universally, fatal. Thus, two things that seem to be at the forefront of the controversy are: the rules of privacy/confidentiality and compulsory testing and screening. Some ethicist are concerned about screening in the sense that it could be a violation of privacy and yet they are just as concerned about the fact the a many AIDS patients refuse to inform their spouses or those in which they are engaging in sexual activity.

9. Health Care. Although the United States spends a sizable amount on health-care, there are still many medical needs that people have which are going unfulfilled. The two major areas of concern for ethicists deal with macroallocation and microallocation. What, if any, are the moral obligations of society to its members in terms of health care? Should the government make available basic health care to all who need it? Should the government ensure that even sophisticated health care be made available to those who need it? What is the proper role of government as it regards funding and providing health care?


Reference: http://www.leaderu.com/isot/docs/bioethic.html

Ethical norms

SAQ1-1

Question#4:
In your opinion, when does the act become ethical or unethical?

Answer:
I agree for some of you who are saying that ethical/unethical act is based on intention. However good intension might be misconstrued and can be interpreted otherwise. Furthermore, even good intension can have offending effects to others. This is obvious from the example of forwarded story email from a person with good intension of helping others to cope in case they will encounter such problem indicated in the email. If it turns out that the story email is a hoax, the receiver would eventually get offended. In that case law (physical?) should come in to put our good intension into the right perspective.

Even then, there still no safe answer to this question. However, I believe that ethical and unethical act should be in the context of learning process. What I mean with this is that, using the same example above, if you learned that your previous good intension didn’t have a good result, you will then verify next time for the veracity of the story before doing the same. Then, that is become ethical for me. In the same token, it will be unethical for me if you didn’t continue to do the good things you are supposed to do when you know clearly how to do it. It goes on saying that we sin not just by commission but also by omission. Doing nothing (good) is even a sin for a living person.

Three definitions of ethics

SAQ 1-1

Question#1:
Pick three definitions of ethics from those given and give your own example of each.

Answer:
Definition #3: Ethics focuses on the care for the soul.
Comment: I will be using here a very specific, even extreme (debatable) example, just to differentiate it from other definition of Ethics. For me, the definition of Ethics from this example is purely religious and spiritual that challenges someone sets of beliefs. And this is apart from what the law of the land says, which caters to other definition of Ethics (Definition #5).
Example: In our church, giving tithes (10% of your income) is expressly requested to members. This is to support the general church administration and its ministries. Looking at it, this is just fair and square because our pastors receive regular and handsome pay for their services to the church, not to mention about biblical support of these actions. For this reason, the congregation can get basic pastoral care services, all for free, like wedding, child dedication, baptism for adult, regular visitation, and other secular services like job referral and self-development training on leadership, entrepreneurship, etc. Moreover, our church has services almost everyday within the week administered by our pastors. For me, not giving your tithes (which is also biblical, debatable may seem) is unethical considering all the free services you will receive as member of the church.

Definition #5: Ethics is the study of philosophy of human conduct with emphasis on the determination of right and wrong.
Comment: This is an easy example because whatever is wrong and illegal is also unethical. This is based from the laws of the land.
Example: Making yourself an extended or additional cable TV connection when you pay for one connection only. You may not get caught (not immediately) to consummate the hand of the law but it is still unethical thing to do.

Definition #6: Ethics deals with the basic principles of right action especially with reference to a particular person, profession, and others.
Comment: This type of ethical norm is very specific to the pastoral profession.
Example: Our pastor always give a real life example from his pastoral counseling to illustrate something in driving a point during his sermon. However, not to embarrass somebody, he always change names and even time setting so that the congregation will not recognize who he is referring to. According to him, this is for him not to violate the so called “ministerial ethics”. That is, not disclosing what is confidential during counseling session.